Chapter 2:
Guidance in recognising abuse
Aim of this chapter
- To describe forms of abuse and indicators of same
- To provide specific cultural and faith-based considerations
- To outline abuse of position of trust
- To outline reasonable grounds for concern
All those who contribute to the life of our local congregations have a part to play in keeping people safe. We do this in the arrangements we make in our congregations through well planned, safe environments and with clear procedures for volunteers and staff.
All our leaders play an important role in responding effectively and compassionately when someone comes forward to share concerns or to disclose abuse, or when we believe a child may be at harm or risk of harm.
‘Not reporting a relevant offence to the police, including those against children, is an offence in Northern Ireland.’ (Criminal Law Act (NI) 1967)
Everyone must be alert to the possibility that children with whom they are in contact may be experiencing abuse or neglect.
One of the main ways in which we can remain alert is to ensure that we can recognise the main signs of abuse. This chapter outlines the main types and signs of abuse.
This is a written guide and it is mandatory that all leaders and staff engaged with children and/or young people’s work in any manner undertake the appropriate level of training, alongside reading this policy.
Recognising abuse in this document is not defined in legal terms, but written in line with legislation for the ordinary reader to understand.
This guidance is written for congregations and services based in Northern Ireland and on legislation, policy and guidance in this jurisdiction. Parallel guidance exists for the Republic of Ireland.
Recognising abuse: A broad look
Abusers and those who may cause harm to a child
Those who harm may be an adult known to the child or a stranger.
It can be anyone who has contact with the child, in person or online, regularly or as a one off.
It can include paid staff, volunteers and include families and friends. Abuse can occur in any setting or organisation.
Children and young people can also cause harm and this should be considered a child welfare and protection issue for both parties. The reporting procedures should be followed for both children involved.
Recognising abuse and harm: A focused look
Child abuse is defined below as per the Department of Health’s Co-operating to Safeguard Children and Young People in Northern Ireland, October 2024
Types of Abuse
Harm can be suffered by a child or young person by acts of abuse perpetrated upon them by others. Abuse can happen in any family, but children may be more at risk if their parents have problems with drugs, alcohol and mental health, or if they live in a home where domestic abuse happens. Abuse can also occur outside of the family environment. Evidence shows that babies and children with disabilities can be more vulnerable to suffering abuse.
Although the harm from the abuse might take a long time to be recognisable in the child or young person, professionals may be in a position to observe its indicators earlier, for example, in the way that a parent interacts with their child.
Effective and ongoing information sharing is key between professionals.
Harm from abuse is not always straightforward to identify and a child or young person may experience more than one type of harm or significant harm.
Harm can be caused by:
- Physical abuse
- Sexual abuse
- Emotional abuse
- Neglect
- Exploitation
- Ill treatment of another, or abusive behaviour directed at another
Physical abuse is deliberately physically hurting a child. It might take a variety of different forms, including hitting, biting, pinching, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning or scalding, drowning or suffocating a child.
Sexual abuse occurs when others use and exploit children sexually for their own gratification or gain or the gratification of others. Sexual abuse may involve physical contact, including assault by penetration (for example, rape or oral sex) or non-penetrative acts such as masturbation, kissing, rubbing and touching outside clothing.
It may include non-contact activities, such as involving children in the production of sexual images, forcing children to look at sexual images or watch sexual activities, encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways or grooming a child in preparation for abuse (including via e-technology).
Sexual abuse is not solely perpetrated by adult males. Women can commit acts of sexual abuse, as can other children.
Contact sexual abuse
Contact sexual abuse is where an abuser makes physical contact with a child or forces the child to make physical contact with someone else. This can include but is not limited to:
- forcing a child to take part in sexual activities (including touching, kissing and oral sex)
- making a child undress or touch someone else
- using a body part or an object to rape or penetrate a child
- any form of sexual touching of a child, clothed or not
- involving a child in an act of masturbation
- inviting or coercing a child to engage in the production of child abuse images (this includes any modelling, posing or exhibition for the purposes of sexual arousal, gratification or sexual acts)
Non-contact sexual abuse
Non-contact sexual abuse is where a child is abused without being touched by the abuser. This can be in person or online and can include but is not limited to:
- any sexual act performed in the presence of a child
- masturbation in the presence of a child
- making a child masturbate
- showing a child any sexually explicit material
- exposing a child to inappropriate or abusive material online, or making them share such material
- coercing a child to take part in sexual activities or sexual conversations via a smart phone or other device (see Chapter 11: Guidelines for online safety)
Emotional abuse is the persistent emotional maltreatment of a child. It is also sometimes called psychological abuse and it can have severe and persistent adverse effects on a child’s emotional development.
Emotional abuse may involve deliberately telling a child that they are worthless, or unloved and inadequate. It may include not giving a child opportunities to express their views, deliberately silencing them or ‘making fun’ of what they say or how they communicate. Emotional abuse may involve bullying – including online bullying through social networks, online games or mobile phones – by a child’s peers.
Neglect is the failure to provide for a child’s basic needs, whether it be adequate food, clothing, hygiene, supervision or shelter that is likely to result in the serious impairment of a child’s health or development. Children who are neglected often also suffer from other types of abuse.
Exploitation is the intentional ill-treatment, manipulation or abuse of power and control over a child or young person – to take selfish or unfair advantage of a child or young person or situation, for personal gain. It may manifest itself in many forms such as child labour, slavery, servitude, engagement in criminal activity, begging, benefit or other financial fraud or child trafficking. It extends to the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation can be sexual in nature (see section 7).
Ill treatment of another or abusive behaviour directed at another means that a child could be harmed by virtue of witnessing the ill-treatment or domestic abuse of another person. However, it is not necessary for the child to have witnessed such treatment or behaviour or, indeed, to have been present when it happened. Abusive behaviour is behaviour that falls within section 2 of the Domestic Abuse and Civil Proceedings Act (NI) 2021.
Specific forms of abuse
(As defined in Co-operating to Safeguard Children and Young People in Northern Ireland, October 2024)
Complex child abuse
The PSNI/HSCNI Joint Protocol defines Complex Child Abuse as ‘complex, organised or multiple abuse, whether sexual, physical, emotional or by neglect occurs as part of a network of abuse across a family or community, within residential homes or schools and within an ‘on or off line’ networked groups of sexual offenders’.
Abuse within communities
Within some communities, there can be an acceptance of the use of violence as a response to perceived anti-social behaviour, crime committed by individuals or as a method of control over children and young people. Children and young people within these communities may be threatened with violence or forced expulsion from their homes and local areas by those linked to organised gangs or paramilitary organisations or as a result of perceived cultural beliefs. Children may also be abused or exploited by adults who hold power within their communities, where fear is used to coerce the child or young person into compliance.
Female genital mutilation (FGM)
FGM involves procedures that include the partial or total removal of the external female genital organs for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons. The practice is medically unnecessary, extremely painful and has serious health consequences, both at the time when the mutilation is carried out and in later life.
FGM is a criminal offence in Northern Ireland. Serious Crime Act 2015 (Sections 72 and 73) as amended, and the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003
Forced marriage
A forced marriage is a marriage conducted without the valid consent of one or both parties and where duress is a factor. Forced marriage is a criminal offence in Northern Ireland. Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007
Honour based violence (HBV)
The term ‘honour based violence’ is used to refer to a range of violent practices used to control behaviour within families or other social groups to sustain or promote perceived cultural and religious beliefs and/or honour.
Fabricated or induced illness (FII)
Harm may be caused when a parent or carer fabricates the symptoms of, or deliberately induces, illness in a child.
Online sexual exploitation of children and young people / Abusive images of children / Risks of misuse of digital technologies (see Chapter 11: Online safety for specific information)
Bullying
Bullying causes physical and/or emotional harm and can result in significant problems of low self-esteem, social isolation, anxiety and depression for the children and young people subjected to it. Bullying occurs in a variety of settings and can take place off and online. All church settings in which children are provided with services or participate in activities must be aware of bullying and tackle this at an early stage. In serious cases it may be necessary to make a referral to social services or the police.
Cultural and faith-based considerations
There are a number of additional risk factors that should be considered in recognising abuse in a faith context, like ours.
These risks can cause barriers to disclosure or reporting and include but are not limited to:
- strong beliefs can prevent children, young people and adults from reporting concerns
- a sense of honour or shame can prevent children and young people from seeking help or reporting concerns
- strong cultural or religious belief in the sanctity of marriage may dissuade children, young people and adults from reporting concerns
- opinions expressed by faith communities around children, regarding sex outside marriage, can cause a barrier for children and young people to speak up about abuse
- social isolation can occur if an individual or family are seen to have acted outside of the community of faith in some manner
- religion or faith can be used as an explanation for abusive behaviours or can be used as a distraction, for example, used to accuse professionals of discrimination
- some professionals lack knowledge about specific cultures and religions and do not feel confident in challenging harmful practices
- professionals want to be respectful of families’ cultural and religious practices but the desire to be culturally sensitive can result in professionals accepting lower standards of care (Culture and faith: learning from case reviews, June 2014, NSPCC)
- some extreme cases mean that children who are seen as ‘disobedient’ or ‘different’ are believed to be possessed by a spirit controlling their behaviour. The children can be physically and emotionally abused in an effort to ‘exorcise’ the spirit
- harmful or unhealthy cultures or ministry practices can be created around the character and personality of a charismatic leader, giving opportunity to abuse a position of trust
- individuals can believe the reputation of the Church is the most significant risk so do not respond appropriately to knowledge of abuse; the welfare of the child is paramount
Abuse by a person in a position of trust
The Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008, as amended in 2022by the Justice Sexual Offences and Trafficking Victims (NI) Act, outlines the legal framework for offences against children under the age of 18, even if they are aged 16 (the age of consent for sexual activity), if the adult occupies a position of trust in the child’s life. In our setting that would include, but is not limited to, Elder/pastoral worker/youth leader.
Cooperating to Safeguard Children and Young People in Northern Ireland (October 2024) states:
Abuse can be perpetrated by adults working in a position of trust, either in an employed or voluntary capacity, in a variety of settings or within an organisation that has responsibility for, or provides services or activities for, children.
We must recognise, unfortunately, that this may apply to roles in the Presbyterian Church in Ireland. These should be dealt with in the same way as allegations against leaders or other volunteers in term of referral to statutory agencies and in taking immediate protective steps in line with PCI guidance
Reasonable grounds for concern
It is everyone’s responsibility to protect children and young people and do their best to keep them safe.
If anyone has reasonable grounds for concern that a child may have been, is currently, or could become at risk of being abused or neglected, they should always inform Social Services via the Trust Gateway Team.
