Chapter 2:
Guidance in recognising abuse
Aim of this chapter
- To describe forms of abuse and indicators of same
- To provide specific cultural and faith-based considerations
- To outline reasonable grounds for concern (Chapter 2, Children First: National Guidance for the Protection and Welfare of Children (2017))
All those who contribute to the life of our local congregations have a part to play in keeping people safe. We do this in the arrangements we make in our congregations through well planned, safe environments and with clear procedures for volunteers and staff.
All our leaders play an important role in responding effectively and compassionately when someone comes forward to share concerns or to disclose abuse, or when we believe a child may be at harm or risk of harm.
‘Everyone must be alert to the possibility that children they are in contact with may be experiencing abuse or neglect’ (Chapter 2, Children First: National Guidance for the Protection and Welfare of Children (2017)).
One of the main ways we can remain alert is to ensure that we can recognise main signs of abuse. This chapter outlines the main types and signs of abuse.
This is a written guide and it is mandatory that all leaders and staff engaged with children and/or young people’s work in any manner undertake the appropriate level of training, alongside reading this policy.
Recognising abuse in this document is not defined in legal terms, but written in line with legislation for the ordinary reader to understand.
This guidance is written for congregations and services based in the Republic of Ireland and on legislation, policy and guidance in that jurisdiction. Parallel guidance exists for Northern Ireland.
Recognising abuse: A broad look
Child abuse can occur any time, any place and to any child.
Child abuse is not necessarily always through physical contact; children can be abused by omission, failure to act and via non-contact online abuse.
Additional risk circumstances
The likelihood of abuse can be affected by a number of other adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) that could make children more vulnerable to the potential for abuse and harm. These include but are not limited to:
- substance misuse in the household
- parent in jail
- domestic violence
- divorce and other family separation
- parental mental illness
- children in armed forces families
- poverty
- social/racial discrimination
- disability
- refugee families
There are also some stages in a child’s own life that could make a child more vulnerable to the potential for abuse and harm. These include but are not limited to:
- age
- disability
- sexual identity
- mental health issues
- communication difficulties
- care-experienced children/care leavers
- young carers
- previous experiences of abuse
There are other factors that could affect the damage to a child’s health, development and welfare. These include but are not limited to:
- frequency of the neglect/abuse
- consistency of the neglect/abuse
- positive influences in a child’s life
It is important to note that in circumstances where there are additional risk factors, this does not necessarily mean that a child is being abused.
Abusers and those who may cause harm to a child
Those who harm may be an adult known to the child or a stranger.
It can be anyone who has contact with the child, in person or online, regularly or as a one off.
It can include paid staff volunteers and include families and friends. Abuse can occur in any setting or organisation.
Children and young people can also cause harm and this should be considered a child welfare and protection issue for both children. The reporting procedures should be followed for both children involved.
Recognising abuse and harm: A focused look
Child abuse is identified under four categories in Tusla’s Children First: National Guidance for the Protection and Welfare of Children (2017): neglect, emotional, physical and sexual.
We set out below a general summary for abuse types. For detailed definitions see Children First (2017).
Neglect
Child neglect is the most reported and common form of abuse and harm that children experience (NSPCC, Statistics Briefing, August 2024 and Chapter 2, Children First: National Guidance for the Protection and Welfare of Children (2017)).
Neglect is not meeting a child’s basic physical and psychological needs.
It is a form of child abuse that can have serious and long-lasting impacts on a child’s life – it can cause serious harm and even death (NSPCC, Statistics Briefing, August 2024).
Neglect is generally defined as omissions of care, when a child’s health, development or welfare is impaired by deprivation of:
- food
- warmth
- hygiene
- medical care
- clothing
- adequate supervision
- safety
- intellectual/emotional stimulation
Some signs of neglect occurring are:
- children left alone without supervision or adequate care
- lack of protection from danger/exposure to danger
- malnourishment, including lacking food, unsuitable food and irregular food available
- lack of adequate clothing
- poor basic hygiene
- lack of medical attention
- persistent failure to attend school
- inadequate living conditions, e.g. unhygienic conditions or a lack of heating or furnishing
- emotional deprivation
Emotional abuse
Emotional abuse is the ongoing emotional maltreatment of a child, which can have a severe and persistent negative effect on the child’s emotional health and development. It’s also known as psychological abuse (Protecting Children from Emotional Abuse, NSPCC, July 2024).
Emotional abuse is generally defined as the systematic or psychological mistreatment of a child by a caregiver. This can occur when, either from inability or indifference from caregivers:
- a child’s need for attention, affection and approval is not met
- a child’s need for consistency is not met
- a child’s need for security is not met
- a caregiver is unaware of or unable to meet their child’s emotional and developmental needs
Some signs of emotional abuse occurring include but are not limited to:
- rejection
- lack of comfort
- lack of attachment
- lack of stimulation
- lack of proper stimulation
- lack of continuity of care (e.g. frequently moving)
- persistent sarcasm, hostility, criticism, child blaming
- conditional parenting (e.g. care giving depends on the child’s behaviour)
- extreme over-protectiveness
- inappropriate non-physical punishment
- ongoing family conflict
- inappropriate expectations of a child relative to their age and stage of development
One-off and occasional difficulties between a caregiver and child are not normally considered emotional abuse.
Emotional abuse is not easy to recognise; the effects are not easily seen. However, these can include but are not limited to:
- insecure attachments
- unhappiness
- educational underachievement
- risk taking
- aggression
No one indicator is conclusive evidence of emotional abuse.
Emotional abuse is also an element of all other forms of abuse.
Physical abuse
Physical abuse is when someone hurts or harms a child or young person on purpose, or puts them at risk of harm.
It may occur as a single incident or a repeated pattern of incidents.
Physical abuse can include but are not limited to:
- beating, kicking, hitting, slapping
- pushing, shaking, throwing a child
- throwing objects at a child
- pinching, biting, hair pulling
- choking
- suffocation
- deliberate poisoning
- fabricated/induced illness
- physical punishment
- female genital mutilation
Some signs of physical abuse occurring can include but are not limited to:
- bruises
- broken or fractured bones
- burns or scalds
- bite marks
- scarring
- the effects of poisoning, such as vomiting, drowsiness or seizures
- breathing problems
- extreme sleepiness
- behaviour changes (e.g. anxiety, eating disorders, criminal behaviours, risk taking behaviours, self-harm, school disruption, depression, suicidal thoughts)
Sexual abuse
When a child or young person is sexually abused, they’re coerced, forced, tricked or manipulated into sexual activities. This includes non-contact sexual abuse.
A child might not understand that what’s happening is abuse, or that it’s wrong for the abuser to do this to them.
Sexual abuse can happen in person or online.
It is never a child’s fault that they were sexually abused – it’s important to make sure children know this at all times.
Contact sexual abuse
Contact sexual abuse is where an abuser makes physical contact with a child or forces the child to make physical contact with someone else. This can include but is not limited to:
- forcing a child to take part in sexual activities (including touching, kissing and oral sex)
- making a child undress or touch someone else
- using a body part or an object to rape or penetrate a child
- any form of sexual touching of a child, clothed or not
- involving a child in an act of masturbation
- inviting or coercing a child to engage in the production of child abuse images (this includes any modelling, posing or exhibition for the purposes of sexual arousal, gratification or sexual acts)
Non-contact sexual abuse
Non-contact sexual abuse is where a child is abused without being touched by the abuser. This can be in person or online and can include but is not limited to:
- any sexual act performed in the presence of a child
- masturbation in the presence of a child
- making a child masturbate
- showing a child any sexually explicit material
- exposing a child to inappropriate or abusive material online, or making them share such material
- coercing a child to take part in sexual activities or sexual conversations via a smart phone or other device (see Chapter 11: Guidelines for online safety)
Some signs of sexual abuse occurring can include, but are not limited to:
- bruising
- bleeding, discharge, pains or soreness in their genital or anal area
- sexually transmitted infections
- pain/soreness in throat
- pregnancy
- difficulties in walking/sitting that are not usual for the child
- having nightmares or bed-wetting
- alcohol or drug misuse
- self-harm
- eating disorders/changes
- abrupt or unusual changes in mood
- use of language that you wouldn’t expect the child to know
- anxiety, stress or fear about being alone with someone/going somewhere
Bullying
Part of empowering children and young people is making sure that they are protected from bullying behaviour while attending the church.
Children First (2017, p.12) defines bullying in this way:
Bullying can be defined as repeated aggression – whether it is verbal, psychological or physical – that is conducted by an individual or group against others. It is behaviour that is intentionally aggravating and intimidating, and occurs mainly among children in social environments such as schools. It includes behaviours such as physical aggression, cyberbullying, damage to property, intimidation, isolation/exclusion, name calling, malicious gossip and extortion. Bullying can also take the form of identity abuse based on gender, sexual preference, race, ethnicity and religious factors. With developments in modern technology, children can also be the victims of non-contact bullying, via mobile phones, the Internet and other personal devices.
In cases of serious instances of bullying where the behaviour is regarded as possibly abusive, congregations may need to make a referral to Tusla and/or the Garda Síochána.
Cultural and faith-based considerations
There are a number of additional risk factors that should be considered in recognising abuse in a faith context, like ours.
These risks can cause barriers to disclosure or reporting and include but are not limited to:
- strong beliefs can prevent children, young people and adults from reporting concerns
- a sense of honour or shame can prevent children and young people from seeking help or reporting concerns
- strong cultural or religious belief in the sanctity of marriage may dissuade children, young people and adults from reporting concerns
- opinions expressed by faith communities around children, regarding sex outside marriage, can cause a barrier for children and young people to speak up about abuse
- social isolation can occur if an individual or family are seen to have acted outside of the community of faith in some manner
- religion or faith can be used as an explanation for abusive behaviours or can be used as a distraction, for example, used to accuse professionals of discrimination
- some professionals lack knowledge about specific cultures and religions and do not feel confident in challenging harmful practices. Professionals want to be respectful of families’ cultural and religious practices but the desire to be culturally sensitive can result in professionals accepting lower standards of care (Culture and Faith: Learning from case reviews, June 2014, NSPCC)
- some extreme cases mean that children who are seen as ‘disobedient’ or ‘different’ are believed to be possessed by a spirit controlling their behaviour. The children can be physically and emotionally abused in an effort to ‘exorcise’ the spirit
- harmful or unhealthy cultures or ministry practices can be created around the character and personality of a charismatic leader, giving opportunity to abuse a position of trust
- individuals can believe the reputation of the Church is the most significant risk so do not respond appropriately to knowledge of abuse; the welfare of the child is paramount
Reasonable grounds for concern
It is everyone’s responsibility to protect children and young people and do their best to keep them safe.
The Children First guidance requires that if anyone has reasonable grounds for concern that a child may have been, is currently or could become at risk of being abused or neglected, they should always inform Tusla.
There are particular legal responsibilities on Mandated Persons to report allegations to Tusla.
In cases of serious instances of bullying where the behaviour is regarded as possibly abusive, congregations may need to make a referral to Tusla and/or the Garda Síochána.
It is never necessary for any individual to prove that abuse has occurred, is occurring or could occur. It is the role of professional experts in Tusla to assess the concerns and make decisions based on this and any other information they have available to them.
The safety and well-being of the child must take priority over concerns about adults against whom allegations are made.
If what could be symptoms of abuse are ignored, it could result in ongoing harm to a child.
Reasonable grounds for concern include but are not limited to:
- Evidence that is consistent with abuse and is unlikely to have happened any other way (for example, injuries)
- Any concerns that are about possible sexual abuse
- Consistent signs that a child is suffering from emotional or physical neglect
- A child saying or indicating by other means (for example, by drawing a picture) that they have been abused
- Admission or indication by an adult or a child of an alleged abuse they committed
- An account from a person who observed the child being abused
Now read Chapter 3: Responding and recording
